Salivary Amylase and Other Enzymes in Saliva

When food enters the mouth, it triggers the release of saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that perform important biological functions. Just like other enzymes in the body, the salivary enzymes help to catalyze, or speed up, the rate of chemical reactions in the body. This function is required to promote digestion and the acquisition of energy from food. Major Enzymes in Saliva Salivary amylase (also known as ptyalin) breaks down starches into smaller, simpler sugars. Salivary kallikrein helps produce a vasodilator to dilate blood vessels. Lingual lipase helps to break down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerides. Salivary Amylase Salivary amylase is the primary enzyme in saliva. Salivary amylase breaks down carbohydrates into smaller molecules, like sugars. Breaking down the large macromolecules into simpler components helps the body to digest starchy foods, like potatoes, rice, or pasta. During this process, larger carbohydrates, called amylopectin and amylose, are broken down into maltose. Maltose is a sugar that is composed of individual subunits of glucose, the human bodys key source of energy.   Salivary amylase also has a function in our dental health. It helps to prevent starches from accumulating on our teeth. In addition to salivary amylase, humans also produce pancreatic amylase, which further breaks down starches later in the digestive process. Salivary Kallikrein As a group, kallikreins are enzymes that take high molecular weight (HMW) compounds, like kininogen, and cleave them to smaller units. Salivary kallikrein breaks down kininogen into bradykinin, a vasodilator. Bradykinin helps to control blood pressure in the body. It causes blood vessels to dilate or expand and causes blood pressure to be lowered. Typically, only trace amounts of salivary kallikrein are found in saliva. Lingual Lipase Lingual lipase is an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides into glycerides and fatty acid components, thus catalyzing the digestion of lipids. The process begins in the mouth where it breaks down the triglycerides into diglycerides. Unlike salivary amylase, which functions best in non-acidic environments, lingual lipase can operate at lower pH values, so its action continues into the stomach. Lingual lipase helps infants digest the fats in their mothers milk. As we get older, the relative proportion of lingual lipase in saliva decreases as other parts of our digestive system help with fat digestion. Other Minor Salivary Enzymes Saliva contains other minor enzymes, like salivary acid phosphatase, which frees up attached phosphoryl groups from other molecules. Like amylase, it helps with the digestion process. Saliva also contains lysozymes. Lysozymes are enzymes that help to kill bacteria, viruses and other foreign agents in the body. These enzymes thus perform antimicrobial functions. Sources Becker, Andrea. â€Å"Names of the Enzymes in the Mouth Esophagus.† Sciencing.com, Sciencing, 10 Jan. 2019, sciencing.com/names-enzymes-mouth-esophagus-17242.html.Marie, Joanne. â€Å"What Are the Functions of Amylase, Protease and Lipase Digestive Enzymes.† Healthy Eating | SF Gate, 12 Dec. 2018, healthyeating.sfgate.com/functions-amylase-protease-lipase-digestive-enzymes-3325.html.

Mission. According To Pets Alive (2016), The Mission Of

Mission According to Pets Alive (2016), the mission of Pets Alive is to reduce the number of cats and dogs that undergo euthanasia. Pets Alive plans to do this by offering spay and neuter services that are very affordable. While this is their main mission, Pets Alive (2016), indicates that the organization also strives to improve the overall health and well-being of cats and dogs. To accomplish this, they have partnered with the animal welfare community. This partnership will allow them to provide both life-saving programs and solutions to the problem of overpopulation (Pets Alive, 2016). History According to â€Å"Pets Alive†, in April of 2002, Katrina Sturgeon read a newspaper article that stated that around 70% of the animals brought to the†¦show more content†¦About a year later, the Pets Alive organization decided that they wanted to reduce the number of unwanted pets that entered animal shelters, which led to the opening of the first spay/neuter clinic in Bloomington (â€Å"Pets Alive†, n.d.). In 2010, the organization decided to expand its services to also offer low-cost vaccinations, preventatives, nail trims, and other basic health services in its Wellness Clinic (â€Å"Pets Alive†, n.d.). Pets Alive currently works with 22 transport partners and animal shelters, allowing them to serve nearly a quarter of Indiana (â€Å"Pets Alive†, n.d.). Executive Director The executive director of Pets Alive is Melissa Lewis. Melissa attended the University of Southern Indiana where she earned a degree in Business Administration and Accounting (Pets Alive, 2016). According to â€Å"Pets Alive†, her career began at the White River Humane Society, where she was able to establish multiple spay and neuter programs. Melissa left the White River Humane Society and accepted a job at Pets Alive, where she was able to fulfill her dream of helping a larger population of pets (â€Å"Pets Alive†, n.d.). How to Donate The Pets Alive organization makes it very easy to donate. On their website, once you click the menu button, a big orange â€Å"Donate† button appears that takes you to their donation page. The Problem Prior to Pets Alive being established, â€Å"more than 110,000 homeless pets were being killedShow MoreRelatedThe Destiny Of The Unevangelized Debate1557 Words   |  7 PagesThe Destiny of the Unevangelized Debate William Brodie Religion 335 July 8, 2016 The Destiny of the Unevangelized Debate has been a concern for Christians throughout the years. There have been questions to arise as to what actually happens to those who have never heard the Gospel. According to Body and Eddy, â€Å"the issue of the destiny of the unevangelized forces Christians to wrestle with the seeming tension between the universality of God’s love and the particularity of theRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 Pagesmarketing and engineering became so fierce that early attempts to implement project management failed. Nobody wanted to be the project manager. Functional team members refused to attend team meetings and spent most of their time working on their own pet projects rather than the required work. Their line managers also showed little interest in supporting project management. Project management became so disliked that the procurement manager refused to assign any of his employees to project teams. InsteadRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesdot.com. Formula One – developing the capabilities for competitive success in a hi-tech industry. Manchester United – clash of expectations in the football world. Salvation Army – strategic challenges for a global not-for-profit organisation with a mission. Bayer MS – corporate social responsibility in the international development of a German company. Eurotunnel – clash of cultures threatens to derail Anglo–French rail link. Ryanair – competitive challenge and strategic choice in the budget airlineRead MoreManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesStandardization and Agility Obtaining IT Capital Investment Approvals 520 The Information Resources Planning Process 520 Assessing The Current Information Resources 521 Measuring IS Use and Attitudes 521 Reviewing the IS Organizational Mission 522 Assessing Performance versus Goals 523 Creating an Information Vision 524 Designing the IT Architecture 524 Formulating the Strategic IS Plan 526 The Strategic IS Planning Process 526 Tools for Identifying IT Strategic Opportunities

Corporate Governance and Turnover Decisions †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Corporate Governance and Turnover Decisions. Answer: Research methodology is a detailed systematic process used for data collection through the various sources, primary as well as secondary sources. It helps in analysis of the data collected data in a systematic way. For this research, the philosophy selected is positivism philosophy. Positivism philosophy is selected because positivism theory will help in understanding the details of the topic, Corporate Governance Positivism philosophy considers only facts which are based on the various observations of the different issues that are reliable. When this philosophy was used in this research, the researcher was only limited to collection of data and their interpretation. (Taylor, Bogdan DeVault, 2015). Data Collection and data analysis In the case of this research that includes in finding the reasons of the collapse of BBY Ltd. Company secondary data collection methods has been used. This is the more suitable than the primary data collection method as this provided an opportunity for the researcher to investigate and research the annual reports of the company, market shares and journals. After the data has been collected from secondary sources, the data analysis has been conducted. Based on the type of data collection method, thematic analysis has been used for analyzing the collected data. Conducting a thematic analysis provided an opportunity of focusing on recoding patterns, pinpointing and examining the data of the company BBY Ltd. (Taylor, Bogdan DeVault, 2015). Corporate Governance plays a very important role in corporations, corporate governance, it is the rules, regulations, practices and processes that are followed by any organization. It refers to the process by which the corporations maintains the interests of its stockholders, the customers, employees, shareholders, investors , suppliers, government bodies and the society where the organizations exist (Jizi et al., 2014). Good corporate Governance helps the organizations in attaining success and economic growth; it creates goodwill in the industry and hence helps in gaining trust of both investors as well as the customers. Good corporate Governance puts impact on the share price of companies which allows public participation through selling shares (Puspaliliah, Nimran, Kertahadi, 2014). Not following good corporate Governance proves detrimental to the organization in the end, it might be profitable in the short run but such success does not last. The same thing happened to BBY Limite d, lack of good Governance led the company to collapse. They failed very badly in following good corporate governance, the company was insolvent in 2011, but it was not revealed, in order to prove that, they did some transactions from the clients money. They even broke some of the rules of ASX, which is a very serious offence. The company as a result has to face legal obligations, which tarnished the reputation of the company, they had to liquidate the assets and in the end the company collapsed (Dimopoulos Wagner, 2016).. Corporate social responsibility Corporate social responsibility is another important aspect, its importance should be known by every organization if it wants to stay in the industry and market for long term, but corporate social responsibility is something beyond organizational goals and objectives and benefits that can be quantified (Dimopoulos Wagner, 2016). No organization exists in a vaccum, society plays a very important role in an organizations existence, every business gets their resources, land, raw materials, labor and sometimes capita from the society, therefore every organization is ethically and morally bound to think about the well being of the society (Abhayawansa, 2014). Corporate social responsibility is considered very important by the the organizations because it creates a goodwill in the market, for surviving in the long run the organizations needs to realize the benefits of corporate social responsibility. The corporations have a responsibility over towards the society, which needs to be taken care properly. Bad corporate governance and not realizing the social responsibility when goes beyond a certain limit puts the company in legal battles, which is very bad for can organization. There is lot of competition in the market and organizations needs to be distinct, this distinction can also be achieved by being socially and ethically responsible. It also affects the share prices of the organization, the company at times are compelled to pay a large amount against the negative publicity. Corporate governance practices at BBY According to Raelin Bondy (2013), not all organizations follow good corporate Governance, BBY Ltd. is a perfect example of one such organization that followed very poor corporate Governance that led to the failure of the organization. BBY Ltd was the main operational unit of BBY group, which is a financial institution based in Sydney. It has offices at Adelaide, Auckland, Brisbane, Gold Coast, London, Melbourne, New York, Perth, and Wellington. It offers financial services, and was founded in the year 1987. BBY group had 10 entities and it included two financial services licensees: BBY Advisory Services Pty Ltd and SmarTrader Limited. The board of BBY comprises of: Glen Rosewall Executive Chairman Ken Rosewall Non- Executive Director David Perkins Non- Executive Director (Coffee, 2015) Michael Goldman- Non- Executive Director Brett A. Spork- Executive Director at APP securities Pty Limited Alan Beasley- Non-Executive Directors, Board of Directors at BBY Limited. Arjun Maharaj Maharaj- Chief Executive Officer and Company Secretary Stephen Vaughan and Ian Hall of KPMG Stephen Vaughan and Ian Hall of KPMG were appointed the joint and many other administrators of the BBY companies on 17th May 2015. Steven Parbey and Brett Lord of PPB Advisory on 18th May 2015 were appointed receivers and managers of BBY and BBY advisory services Pty Ltd (Coffee, 2015). Corporate Governance issues Before its collapse BBY was largest autonomous stockbrokers in Australian Market. The collapse occurred because BBY ltd engaged in unethical practices. BBY had the responsibility that its representatives performed their duties in efficient, honest and affair way. It is very important for BBY to main a efficient corporate culture, but the organization failed badly in meeting the objectives of Corporate Governance (Tricker, Tricker, 2015). The BBY limited was insolvent since 2011, the company kept on trading while it was insolvent until it collapse after the legal obligations and faulty Corporate Governance practices. A report by the liquidators of BBY, at KPMG suggests that, the company carried out a series of transactions by using the money of client to maintain the shortfall in the transactions for saxo clients in 2011, after the company bought the Stonebridge. The liquidators where speculating that the transaction was done only to prove that the company was not insolvent. The numb er of unusual transactions also raised questions on the corporate governance practices of the company and the business management of BBY Limited. It was found by KPMG that there was $17 million shortfall in the accounts of the client. The corporate governance issues of BBY came into light after Australia Securities Exchange, ASXs attention. It was found by ASX that on behalf of one of its client, BBY had done an acquisition trade, which was of $192 million (Tricker, Tricker, 2015). The company faced many margin calls from ASX because of the transaction. BBY requested deferral of the margin calls so that it can avoid defaulting. After investigation of the issue, ASX found that BBY had received a security deposit of $29 million fom one of its clients, the company was supposed to deposit that amount to the trust account but it failed to do so. Hence, there was a breach of operating rules of ASX by BBY. ASX has the authority to take actions against any breach in the operational rules o f ASX. BBY did not adhere to a number of operating rules of ASX Clear, it did attend the margin calls and failed to deposit in the trust account. In the review, it was found that there was weakness in the risk management and compliance framework (Dimopoulo Wagner, 2016). Consequences of Corporate Governance Issues According to Beekes, Brown Zhang, 2015 on 18th May 2015 the company entered into voluntary administration. The Australian Financial services licence of BBY limited was suspended by Australian securities and Investment Commission as per 915B(3) Corporations Act. After discussion with the administrators, BBY participation was restricted in the ASX facility settlement by ASX settlement (Lim,How, Verhoeven, 2014). A second creditors meeting was held on 22nd june 2015, the majority of the creditors voted in the favor of winding up of BBY group which also included BBY Ltd. The clients of the BBY Ltd were very disappointed and agitated, the company lost its reputation in the market. A fine was imposed on BBY for not following the rules of ASX Compliance Pty Ltd. Within a timeperiod of less than a year, BBY was liquidated. The unethical practices of BBY and failure to adhere the operational rules of ASX led to the collapse of the company (Puspaliliah, Nimran Kertahadi, 2014). Every organi zation that fails to maintain a good corporate governance faces the same fate as the BBY, which lost all trust and goodwill from market, had to pay penalty and the company liquidated and collapsed within a time span of less than a year (Puspaliliah, Nimran Kertahadi, 2014). References Abhayawansa, S., Guthrie, J. (2014). Importance of intellectual capital information: a study of Australian analyst reports.Australian Accounting Review,24(1), 66-83. Beekes, W., Brown, P., Zhang, Q. (2015). Corporate governance and the informativeness of disclosures in Australia: a re?examination.Accounting Finance,55(4), 931-963. Coffee Jr, J. C., Sale, H., Henderson, M. T. (2015). Securities regulation: Cases and materials. Dimopoulos, T., Wagner, H. F. (2016). Corporate Governance and CEO Turnover Decisions. Jizi, M. I., Salama, A., Dixon, R., Stratling, R. (2014). Corporate governance and corporate social responsibility disclosure: Evidence from the US banking sector.Journal of Business Ethics,125(4), 601-615. Lim, M., How, J., Verhoeven, P. (2014). Corporate ownership, corporate governance reform and timeliness of earnings: Malaysian evidence.Journal of Contemporary Accounting Economics,10(1), 32-45. Puspaliliah, H. C., Nimran, U., Kertahadi, K. (2014). THE INFLUENCE OF GOOD CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND FIRM SIZE ON CAPITAL STRUCTURE AND FIRM FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE (AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AT BANKS LISTED ON INDONESIA STOCK EXCHANGE IN THE PERIODS OF 2011-2013).PROFIT (JURNAL ADMINISTRASI BISNIS),8(2). Raelin, J. D., Bondy, K. (2013). Putting the Good Back in Good Corporate Governance: The Presence and Problems of Double?Layered Agency Theory.Corporate Governance: An International Review,21(5), 420-435. Silverman, D. (Ed.). (2016).Qualitative research. Sage. Taylor, S. J., Bogdan, R., DeVault, M. (2015).Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource. John Wiley Sons. Tricker, R. B., Tricker, R. I. (2015).Corporate governance: Principles, policies, and practices. Oxford University Press, USA.

Impacts of E-business for Hospitality Industries - myassignmenthelp

Question: Write about theImpacts of E-business for Hospitality Industries. Answer: Introduction In the current business scenario, internet and online technologies are contributing in rapidly evolving the existing scenario of doing business. The exiting process of providing service to the customers, providing customer convenience and value creation of the products are being changing rapidly with the help of online technologies[1]. One of the key or prime developments being happened due to the initiation of internet is the E-business. With the help of this concept, business organizations are going beyond own limits to provide effective customers service and to stay ahead in the competition. Hospitality industries such as Oman air will have several advantages from the involvement of E-business[2]. It will enable them to effectively deal with the customers and enhancing their convenience. Thus, they will gain more competitive advantages in the market. This report will discuss about the impact of initiation of E-business on Oman air. Suitable article will be reviewed in order to determine the effectiveness and viability of using the concept of E-business for Oman air. Overview of the article There are various articles being discussed by the different authors about the impact of E-business on the organizational performance and effectiveness. According to Voola, Casimir, Carlson and Agnihotri (2012)[3], E-business is the new age trend in the contemporary business scenario. According to them, there are various aspects that should be maintained in order to initiate the concept of E-business in the organization. However, in this article, there are various potential benefits being discussed for the business organizations. Thus, discussion of these benefits of E-business will help Oman air to determine the most effective steps for enhancing their organizational performance with the help of internet. According to the authors, initiation of the e-business with the help of innovations such as webpage, online payment systems, and online shopping will help the business organizations to cater to more number of customers effectively. Moreover, these steps will help them in gaining com petitive advantages in the market by providing updated services to the customers. Evaluation of the article The above discussed article have only discussed about the implication of technological innovation and E-business concept on the organizational performance. According to this article, organizational performance will get enhanced with the initiation of the concept of E-business. However, in the initiation of the e-business, there are other various factors that should also be considered by the organizations, to increase the effectiveness of their e-business. Opinions being given by George Wynn, Turner and Lau (2013)[4], states that, implementation of the concept of E-business in the organization will involve the change process and involvement of information technology. This is due to the reason that, according to the authors, implementation of the process of E-business involves change in the existing business procedures and thus change is required to adhere to the criterions of E-business. On the other hand, another theory being given by Lai, Jung-Yu, Chih-Wei Kan and Khire Rushikesh Ul has (2013)[5], employee involvement and participation in the organizational process is also required in effective implementation of the concept of E-business. Moreover, initiation of the e-business is not only beneficial for the customers and organizations but also for the employees[6]. This is due to the reason that, employees will be more equipped and will be supported by the updated technologies in dealing with the customers. Thus, it can be concluded that, there are various factors that should considered by the business organizations in implementing the process of E-business. Moreover, it is also being stated by the authors that, implementation of E-business is having various positive implications for the business organizations[7]. The following sections will discuss about the implications of E-business on the organizational performance and effectiveness on Oman air. Evaluation of E-business policies on Oman air Various E-business policies such as marinating websites, online ticket booking facilities, online payment systems, offering e-cash to the customers and providing online customization options for the added services will help Oman air to provide more and effective customer convenience[8]. This will have various and diversified positive outcomes for the organization. In this case, the example of Emirates airlines can be taken. The design of the official website of Emirates airline is being done in such way that it will provide holistic service to the customers. Customers visiting their web page will have the access to the history of the company along with having the facility of online ticket booking. Moreover other online facilities being offered by them are the online check in facilities, online management of the passenger seat, customer loyalty programs and added facilities such as tourism package and hotel bookings across the world[9]. Thus, with having these diversified facilities, Emirates is covering the diversified needs of the customers. In the case of Oman air, enhancing the utility of their official websites will help them to enhance their competitive advantages in the market. This is due to the reason that, in the current business scenario, especially in the airline sector, customers are more looking for the convenience and peace of mind in selecting their preferred airliner[10]. Thus, organizations such as Emirates are going ahead in the competition. In order to stay competitive in the market, Oman air also has to initiate the facilities of online payment and other facilities[11]. This will help them to enhance the effectiveness of their organizational process by catering to more number of customers. Implementation of Porters five forces theory Porters five forces theory will help to determine the various impacts of involving of E-business in the organizational activity of Oman air. According to this theory, the first step is the threat of entry. For Oman air, the threat of entry is always high due to the probability of new entrants[12]. Moreover, the new entrants in the market will offer more updated service to the customers. Thus, it is of utmost importance for the Oman air to initiate E-business to offer service to the customers according to the change in the requirement in the market. Thus, the more will be the diversified online services being provided by them, the more they will be equipped to take on the new entrants. The next aspect is the bargaining power of the suppliers. For Oman air, suppliers include the partners of them such as booking agents and travel agents[13]. However, in case of not having any online or E-business activity, they will be more depended on the existing partners and it will increase the bargaining power of the suppliers. On the other hand, initiation of E-business will help to reduce the dependency on the suppliers. The next element of this theory is threat to the substitutes. In the current scenario, various airliners are operating and competition is high. The core service being offered by them is same of providing air service. Thus, in order to stay ahead in the competition, Oman air has to promote distinctive service for their customers. Initiation of the E-business will enable them to promote unique services to the customers from their portal, which will help them to stay ahead in the competition. The next step is the bargaining power of the buyers[14]. In the case of airline industry, the bargaining power of the buyer is more due to the presence of different airliner in the market. In this case also, initiation of the E-business will help Oman air to provide one of a kind services to the customers, which will reduce the number of options available to the customers. The last step is the industry rivalry. Switching cost for the customers is very less and thus, customers have low level of loyalty. Hence, with the initiation of the E-business, the diversity of the product and service portfolio of Oman air will get increased[15]. More added service can be offered to the customers. Thus, among the competition, Oman air will have competitive advantages[16]. Recommendations The initiation of the E-business should be implemented in the global scenario. This will enable the customers to have the online flight booking facility for all the major cities around the world. The interface of the portal or web page should be changed periodically in accordance to the market trend. This will enhance the visibility and attractiveness of the web page to the potential customers. Privacy and security is one of the key contemporary issues being faced by the online portals. Thus, Oman air should ensure the security of their portal. This is important due to the reason that, customer information will be stored and thus leakage or breach of customer information will have negative implication for them. Customer loyalty bonus and rebate should be initiated in order to motivate the customers to use their online facilities. It will help them to increase the online traffic. In this case, extra discount can be provided for the customers booking tickets from online portal. Any organizational excellence and achievements should be effectively communicated and promoted through their portals. It will help Oman air to enhance their brand value and service as well as attracting more customers. The online portals should be made available in different major languages to effectively communicate and reach out to different customers from different social groups. Conclusion Thus, it can be concluded that, initiation of the E-business will help Oman air in enhancing their organizational effectiveness. Their brand value will also get enhanced and communicated to more number of customers around the world. Critical analysis has also been done to determine the benefits of having E-business for Oman air. It is been determined that initiation of the E-business will help Oman air to gain more competitive advantages in the market and will help to create distinctive image in the market. Various recommendations are also been provided and discussed in this report. It is being expected that, effective implementation of these recommendations will help to enhance the organizational performance of Oman air.

Boot Camp Essays - Penology, Boot Camp, Punishments, Prison, Booting

Boot Camp Why Shock Incarceration Works! I. Introduction A. Population of facilities going up 1. Need another way to rehabilitate (boot camps) a. Jenny Jones b. Sally B. Today I hope to convince you that shock incarceration can be an effective substitute for prison time C. I will explain the actual boot camp experience, show a typical day at boot camp, and illustrate the effectiveness of boot camp II. Actual Boot Camp Experience A. Many feel it promotes positive behavior B. 54 adult boot camps in 34 states 1. 7250 inmates C. Activities 1. Physical training (pass out pictures) 2. Hard labor 3. Military drills and ceremonies 4. Summary punishment a. Push-ups, sit-ups, run with backpack, chin-ups D. Programs 1. Rehabilitative Programs a. Drug and alcohol treatment b. Life skills training c. Vocational education d. Therapy e. General education classes III. Typical Day at Boot Camp A. Wake up at 5:30 AM B. Cal and drill 5:45 AM C. Run 7:00 AM D. Breakfast 8:00 AM E. Formations 8:30 AM F. Work/School 12:00 PM G. Lunch 12:30 PM H. Work/School 3:30 PM I. Shower 4:00 PM J. Network Community Meeting 4:45 PM K. Dinner 6:00 PM L. Counseling 6:45 M. Bed 9:30 PM N. Time spent 1. 31% on community projects. 2. 30% in substance abuse treatment and other programs teaching responsibility 3. In prison they would just sit around taking up space III. Effectiveness A. Boot camp has 5 basic goals 1. Incapacitation a. Break the person mentally in order to mold them into a better person for society 2. Deterrence a. Make it so they never want to come back, thus causing them not to commit any more crimes 3. Rehabilitation a. Rehab for drugs, alcohol, and anger 4. Reduction of prison costs and overcrowding 5. Punishment B. How the convict changes 1. Boot camp has a positive impact on attitudes 2. Graduates are more likely (then regular inmates) to remain in the community after one, two, or three years 3. More programs are offered in boot camp, which give the people better skills for society a. Skills for the workplace b. Skills for everyday living with other people and themselves C. Effects on us 1. Reduces prison bed space and saves money (our tax dollars!) a. New York Department of Correctional Services (1). Calculated $542 million in savings in inmate housing due to inmates in boot camp getting out on average as 11 ? months early IV. Conclusion A. Today I have explained the actual boot camp experience, shown a typical day at boot camp, and illustrated the effectiveness of boot camp. B. I hope I have convinced you that shock incarceration can be an effective substitute for prison time Economics Essays

John Proctor Vs. John F. Kennedy

John Proctor Vs. John F. Kennedy John Proctor vs. John F. Kennedy Two men both from different times, world's cultures, find themselves more alike than they could ever know. Decent God loving men, both in their own ways hero's of their times. John Proctor of "The Crucible"‚  and John Kennedy, the former American President are more similar than anyone could have ever imagined.John Proctor, an upstanding citizen in Salem, Massachusetts in the Puritan community in the late 1800's wrongly accused of witchcraft and sentenced to death. Proctor has had a rough life. He was married to Elizabeth Proctor, whom having cheated on with their housekeeper, Abigail, stood by him. Elizabeth, one of the many wrongly accused, tried to reason with John in a few of his final hours. Both, in the middle of a fight between good and evil eventually did the right thing. To John having chosen God over the devil and even his family, in turn would help his wife and children.Proctor, VermontJohn Kennedy, an upstanding citizen, politician, and eventually President was born into the early 1900's and was married to a good woman like Elizabeth, Jackie. Much like Proctor he also cheated on his wife with a woman named Marilyn Monroe. But, because of his love for his wife and his children, ended the affair.Both Proctor and Kennedy are good men, even though neither were saints, in their lives they found their love of God in the end. One thing they didn't have in common however is how their lives ended. Both tragic, and they both died with their pride and dignity, but each in a different way. Proctor was hung for the false accusation of practicing with the devil, and because he refused to confess to something he didn't do. Kennedy was assassinated by a crazy man who didn't...

Statistics Assignment Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Statistics Assignment - Speech or Presentation Example The probability of winning the lottery is then around nine in a billion. It should be noted that the resulting equation actually simplifies to a multiplication rule. However, the binomial distribution may be used to model more complex lottery options. In the construction of a 5-digit number, the order in which is numbers are drawn is clearly important. Also, since repetition of digits is not allowed, a single digit chosen is removed from the pool of possible succeeding digits. These conditions indicate that the total number of digits can simply be taken using a permutation. The given table can only be classified as a probability distribution if its individual probabilities are between zero and one and the total probability is equal to one. In the given table, the probability at X = 2 is greater than one. Since no negative probabilities are present, the total probability is also greater than one. As both requirements are not met, the table cannot be a probability distribution. The sample data is relatively sparse (n To determine whether a relationship exists between the two variables, the given data may be fitted onto a function. The simplest approach is to use a linear model for approximating the relation. To aid in this, a column representation may be constructed. It should be noted that the independent variable based on the description is the cost of the product. An assumed frequency distribution is assumed in this case which allows the use of the Goodness of Fit test. The computations for the chi square statistic can then be determined as shown in the following table: Data is a very important

Gender Stereotypes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gender Stereotypes - Essay Example If the husband has an understanding towards wife then disputes never occurs but if the husbands are adamant and of dominating temperament then the wife is not of docile kind then conflicts arise in the family leading to the disturbed family lives for both the partners finally leading to separation or divorce. Q. Is the husband still expected to be the head of the household If so, explain what roles the husband will be in charge of as the head of the household. If not, explain the distribution of roles within the home. In majority of the families husbands are still considered to be the head of the family and every member of the family has to follow his commands, but with changing trends, awareness and education husbands are also contributing their efforts in helping the spouse and in raring the children, like picking the children from school, bringing household articles from the market, helping wife in kitchen and other household work, devoting time for the family, helpin

Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Interview - Essay Example rengthen the overall fitness and effectiveness of the Army ´s workforce, to conserve manpower and enhance the combat readiness of Soldiers.† The difference between the two mission statements is that the Army mission is to ready the soldier for reintroduction to service. The mission and staff are funded by federal funds. When I first walked into the ASAP office on Fort Lewis, it feels like any other building, however, there is a totally different feeling when you walk into Mr. Dobson’s office. The instant you walk into the room the atmosphere is relaxing. It is spacious and light, with a fountain running in the corner; the room is painted with nice, soothing colors. Mr. Dobson said the army standard counseling sessions are 90 minutes long. He meets with active military and their family, retired military and federal civilian employees. He said the hardest thing about the job is trying to help someone or families that move every two to three years. Sometime they don’t try to get help until right before they leave, this leaves a disconnect between services and the families and military can drop the ball. Mr. Dobson stated the hardest issue for him to discern is to know if a client has issues of drug abuse. The army gives prescription for all kinds of pain. Mr. Dobson stated that he was aware the soldiers go through a lot, so it is hard to determine which drugs are for physical pain and which are used for emotional pain. Mr. Dobson begins with questions about the client’s family history of drug and alcohol abuse. Were they abused as a child or adult? What kind of culture and society did they grow up in? Are they suffering from trauma that happened while in military service? (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder or sometimes called, PTSD). These all play a big factor in how someone takes medication. This is major issue in the military because of regular drug testing, and the policy one can be dishonorably discharged out of the military for abusing drugs. Mr.

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati

Why Gender Matters in Understanding September 11th :: September 11 Terrorism Essays

Usually when the word gender is used in a political sense often times what is described is the role of women in a certain aspect of politics. This paper is a look at certain social norms that are directly related to women and their rights that seem to allow and harbor terrorist. The idea of the article that I am basing this paper on is by Amy Caiazza Ph.D. who suggests that if we were to change some of our ways in society regarding women we might have been able to foresee the events of the September 11th attacks. Historically women have taken a back seat to men in almost every aspect of life we were always second choice. Fortunately for us as the time moves forward we see a dramatic increase in the role that women play in society today. Though our progress has been great there are still women who are not satisfied with the place in society that women have. Locally here in the U.S. women have it pretty good and most of them tend not to complain but there are those feminist that want women abroad to be able to experience the same freedoms that the women of America enjoy and some times take for granted. Women in our traditional roles or as some may say in our natural state are known as the child bearers, family care takers, household keeper, and nurturer of all. The list that I just stated is only the beginning of what a woman can do. In other countries for example in Afghanistan in 1997 when the now popular Taliban first came into power they put into practice a radical form of Islamic rule known as Sharia. This radical rule that they governed with limited women in so many ways the women of Afghanistan were not allowed to educate themselves. These women were also not allowed to participate in any form of activism and were not able to even have a physical position in their own society. When women have been found in violation of these rules the end results were never too good. In fact many women have been beaten and put to death once they were caught breaking the rules.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These acts of disrespect and violence against women are no secret to the United States of America. America jokingly is often called the world police and is known for â€Å"sticking their nose in other peoples business† but for some unknown reason they have taken no action against the Taliban for these injustices they are imposing on the women of Afghanistan.